Cardiac contractility modulation (CCM) is known as a method of improving heart function. CCM relies upon application of an electric signal to a selected portion of the heart to increase strength of a subsequent contraction initiated by a cardiac signal generated by the heart and/or a signal supplied by a conventional pacemaker.
In order to assess efficacy of CCM, pressure measurements within the heart are typically used to directly assess cardiac contractility. For example, Left Ventricular Pressure (LVP) may be measured directly by LV catheters such as those produced by Millar. Pressure measurements within the heart typically include implantation of a measuring device (e.g. Millar catheter) within one of the heart chambers. Implantation is an invasive procedure, most often involving introducing a catheter to a femoral artery and guiding the measuring device to a heart chamber. As a result, direct pressure measurements are not widely employed to identify patients who are candidates for CCM. Because leaving the catheter and measuring device in the patient for an extended period of time is impractical, direct measurements of cardiac pressure are also not widely used for periodic monitoring of patients in whom a CCM device has been implanted.
In order to circumvent the need to measure pressure directly, attempts have been made to gauge cardiac mechanical parameters such as stroke volume using measurements of electrical impedance between two leads. For a given current flowing between the two leads, the impedance will be influenced by distance and/or material between the two leads. In that context, Pressure-Volume catheters were developed with respective analysis systems that evaluate P-V loops (e.g. the DF series of catheters manufactured by CD-Leycom, Zoetermeer, Netherlands). These devices also require implantation of a catheter within a heart chamber.
Cambridge Heart (Bedford Mass., USA) markets a system for analysis of T-wave alternance as a means of gauging stability of a heartbeat. The Cambridge Heart Microvolt T-Wave Alternans (http://www.cambridgeheart.com/) Test measures beat-to-beat fluctuations in a person's heartbeat. T-wave alternans indicates heartbeat variations, measured at one millionth of a volt. Detection is from sensors on a patient's chest.
A wide range of published clinical data has shown that patients with symptoms of or at risk of life threatening arrhythmias who have a normal or negative Microvolt T-Wave Alternance (MTWA) test are at minimal risk for a sudden cardiac event while those who have an abnormal or positive test are at increased risk for subsequent sudden cardiac events including sudden death.
Use of intracardiac impedance measurements has been correlated to cardiac contractility since the 1950s and is currently used successfully as a clinical sensor in permanent pacemakers (M. Schaldach, “Electrotherapy of the Heart”, Chapter on Cardiac Control Parameters, pp 105-143, Berlin: Springer-Verlag 1992; J. G. Webster, “Design of Cardiac Pacemakers”, Chapter 16, pp 369-396, IEEE Press 1995 and W. Arthur and G. C. Kaye, “Clinical Use of Intracardiac Impedance: Current Applications and Future Perspectives”, JOURNAL OF PACING AND CLINICAL ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY, Volume 24, No. 4, Part 1, April 2001; These three articles fully incorporated herein by reference). Impedance measurements may be used to ascertain, the pre-ejection period (PEP) also known as the pre-ejection interval (PEI) and/or a ventricular inotropic parameter (VIP). In general a short PEP is indicative of a robust contraction. The VIP also indicates the strength of contraction. The VIP has less patient to patient variance than the PEP. Measurement of PEP and/or VIP typically employs leads deployed in the heart chambers.
Cardiac function may also be assessed acoustically. A cardiac acoustic profile is called a phonocardiogram (PCG) and indicates blood flow turbulence. Researchers usually distinguish two basic patterns of heart sound S1 and S2. (“Hemodynamic Pressure Instabilities and their Relation to Heart Ausculation”. Vladimir Kudriavtsev, Vladimir Polyschuk, Olga Saynina. Proceeding of ASME PVP Division Conference: 5th international Symposium on Computational Technologies for Fluid/Thermal/Chemical/Stressed Systems with Industrial Applications Jul. 25-29, 2004, San Diego/La Jolla, USA; http://www.bsignetics.com/news.htm). This paper is fully incorporated herein by reference. Acoustic profiles may be generated by non-invasive means and have been previously employed to evaluate electrical activity of the heart.